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	<title>Belgium | OHRH</title>
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	<title>Belgium | OHRH</title>
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<site xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">39401664</site>	<item>
		<title>International Scientific Committees: Academic freedom and institutional responsibility in the case of the University of Liège (Belgium) (4/9)</title>
		<link>https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/international-scientific-committees-academic-freedom-and-institutional-responsibility-in-the-case-of-the-university-of-liege-belgium-4-11/</link>
					<comments>https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/international-scientific-committees-academic-freedom-and-institutional-responsibility-in-the-case-of-the-university-of-liege-belgium-4-11/#respond</comments>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Juliette Delvaux and Edouard Delruelle]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 29 May 2026 18:02:03 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Blog]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Belgium]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/?p=87213</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[In this article, we examine a tension within university committees tasked with evaluating international scientific collaborations. On the one hand, universities have a mission to safeguard academic freedom and to promote the development of international scientific cooperation. On the other hand, these freedoms may come into conflict with institutional responsibility, both with respect to compliance [&#8230;]]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong>In this article, we examine a tension within university committees tasked with evaluating international scientific collaborations. On the one hand, universities have a mission to safeguard academic freedom and to promote the development of international scientific cooperation. On the other hand, these freedoms may come into conflict with institutional responsibility, both with respect to compliance with international and humanitarian law and ethical and political standards, as well as the economic or reputational interests of the University. How can actors manage this tension, as well as the inescapable “grey area” between these different types of collaboration?</strong></p>
<p>The University guarantees the material, security, ethical and legal conditions within which research and teaching are developed. In this respect, two principles are fundamental to the proper functioning of science: academic freedom and international scientific collaboration. At the international level, academic freedom is guaranteed by <a href="https://fra.europa.eu/en/law-reference/european-convention-human-rights-article-10">Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights</a>, as well as by <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/FR/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:12012P/TXT">Article 13 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.</a> The freedom to seek, produce, and disseminate knowledge without restriction is also upheld by the <a href="https://pace.coe.int/en/files/17469/html">Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe</a>. The duty to strengthen international collaboration in scientific matters is explicitly addressed in <a href="https://www.lawglobalhub.com/article-15-international-covenant-on-economic-social-and-cultural-rights-icescr/">Article 15 of the United Nations International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights</a>. In Belgium, academic freedom, <a href="https://www.qsf.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Xavier-Delgrange-Libert%C3%A9-acad%C3%A9mique-par-del%C3%A0-la-libert%C3%A9-dexpression-1.pdf">although not formally enshrined in the Constitution</a>, is <a href="https://www.centreperelman.be/content/uploads/2022/09/jtde-viedroit_1511_2_.pdf">recognised through the case law of the Constitutional Court</a>. These principles are essential in a context marked by growing politicization and distrust toward science. The economic attacks against universities carried out by the Trump administration, motivated by an ideological hostility toward the academic world, find their echo in Europe, as shown notably in Belgium, by the statements of the President of one of the main “democratic” parties, <a href="https://www.lesoir.be/726058/article/2026-02-01/lulb-accuse-georges-louis-bouchez-de-remettre-en-cause-la-place-de-luniversite">G-L Boucher, against the Free University of Bruxelles. </a>As a result, proposals to formally enshrine academic freedom in the Constitution have been put forward by academics in <a href="https://theconversation.com/face-aux-attaques-contre-la-science-limportance-dinscrire-la-liberte-academique-dans-la-constitution-belge-273947">Belgium</a> and <a href="https://www.afsp.info/rapport-balme-2025-liberte-academique/">France</a>.</p>
<p>How, then, should one understand the recommendation of the <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ%3AC_202403510">Council of the EU of 23 May 2024</a>, which calls for promoting international cooperation “as open as possible” yet “as closed as necessary”? The tensions linked to various global conflicts, combined with the intensification of international interdependencies, lead universities to deepen their reflection on their responsibilities as well as on the impact of their scientific collaborations. These impacts may relate to national security, particularly when research involves a partner identified as presenting a risk of industrial or military espionage, or breaches of personal data. The same applies where the research conducted is liable to contravene international law or to infringe human rights.</p>
<p>Within this framework, committees for the evaluation of international scientific partnerships in Liège’s University are tasked with raising awareness within the academic community and to issue opinions to the authorities (who remain sovereign in their decisions) regarding the ethical and legal responsibilities arising from envisaged collaborations. The committees adopt a precautionary approach aimed at reconciling, on the one hand, academic freedom and scientific progress, and, on the other hand, respect for international law and human rights. This balance rests on three essential safeguards.</p>
<p>First, only institutional partnerships are examined, insofar as they formally engage the responsibility and reputation of the university. This includes all collaborations governed by an agreement or contract (staff appointments, transfer of intellectual property, etc.). However, interindividual collaborations, which fall fully within the scope of academic freedom, are not subject to review (co-authoring of an article, participation in a doctoral jury or in a conference, etc.), although it can occasionally happen that faculty members request an opinion from the evaluation committee.</p>
<p>Second, the committees do not base their analyses on arbitrary considerations. Although these norms are not binding on higher education institutions, the examination of general international law, international humanitarian and criminal law, and more broadly, human rights constitute the normative compass guiding the institution’s position in matters of international cooperation.</p>
<p>Finally, the committees do not adopt any specific political or ideological position and follow the pluralist guiding line that characterises, in the instance of Liège, a public University. This “institutional restraint” is an essential principle and a condition of academic freedom: <a href="https://aoc.media/analyse/2024/10/22/sur-le-positionnement-politique-des-universites/">it is by limiting institutional freedom of expression that pluralism of expression within the institution can be guaranteed</a></p>
<p>The example of collaborations with Israeli universities illustrates the coherence of this approach. Following the Israeli military response in Gaza to the attacks of 7 October 2023, significant student mobilizations called upon the university to adopt a general boycott of Israeli universities.  Sensitive to the ethical grounds underlying this mobilisation, yet opposed to any generalised boycott, the University of Liège conducted a case-by-case assessment based on the risks of serious violations of international and humanitarian law. A moratorium was established on certain institutional collaborations involving partners linked to the Israeli military effort. This decision follows the precautionary logic and does not extend to individual collaborations, which fall within the scope of academic freedom. The moratorium was not adopted in support of a particular political side, but in the name of fundamental humanitarian values and with the intention of preventing the institution from being associated with potential <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/fr/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-prevention-and-punishment-crime-genocide">serious violations of international law such as war crimes, crimes against humanity or genocide.</a> The same precautionary logic is observed in other types of collaborations, particularly with partners notoriously active in the military field.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
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		<post-id xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">87213</post-id>	</item>
		<item>
		<title>Human rights screening: The Flemish Model and Practice (3/9)</title>
		<link>https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/human-rights-screening-the-flemish-model-and-practice/</link>
					<comments>https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/human-rights-screening-the-flemish-model-and-practice/#respond</comments>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Eva Brems and Wouter Vandenhole]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 29 May 2026 12:17:27 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Blog]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Belgium]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/?p=87208</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[In late 2019, the Flemish Interuniversity Council (VLIR) issued Recommendations for implementing a human rights assessment at the Flemish universities, building on the pioneering work at Ghent University. The human rights assessment (HRA) applies to universities’ collaboration with external partners. That may be a university partner (central and decentralised units) or a non-university partner (institutions [&#8230;]]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong>In late 2019, the Flemish Interuniversity Council (VLIR) issued <a href="https://vlir.be/publicaties/vlir-docs/">Recommendations for implementing a human rights assessment at the Flemish universities</a>, building on the pioneering work at Ghent University.</strong></p>
<p>The human rights assessment (HRA) applies to universities’ collaboration with external partners. That may be a university partner (central and decentralised units) or a non-university partner (institutions for research, education and services, the public and private sector), in bilateral or multilateral forms of cooperation. The HRA only applies to collaborations that commit the Flemish university as an institution, through a formal agreement. Individual or informal collaboration – such as guest lecturing; conference attendance; PhD supervision; co-publishing – is not covered.</p>
<p>The HRA covers at least two aspects, that is, the partner(s) in the cooperation and the activities of the cooperation. The assessment of partners is required <a href="https://vlir.be/publicaties/vlir-docs/">‘irrespective of the activities that would be carried out in cooperation with the partner.’</a> (p. 12). With regard to the partner assessment, the HRA focuses on ‘serious and/or systematic human rights violations’ by the partner. As to the activities, every human rights violation is to be considered.</p>
<p>When a human rights risk is detected, an assessment is made of both the positive and negative impact a new collaboration may have. If, on balance, ‘<a href="https://vlir.be/publicaties/vlir-docs/">the cooperation may have more positive than negative consequences for the human rights situation, then it may be advisable to actually continue these, provided that a follow-up procedure (&#8216;monitoring&#8217;) is put in place</a>’ (p. 22). A dialogue is always envisaged. If the human rights risk relates to a partner, this may lead to the exclusion of that partner. If it relates to an activity, an adjustment or removal of that activity is recommended. In the alternative, the Flemish university may withdraw from the partnership.</p>
<p>The HRA takes place as early as possible in the preparatory process of a formal agreement. Three stages are envisaged: screening, scoping and conclusions. Screening is undertaken by those who initiate the collaboration (staff, support service, decentralised unit). Scoping (a more thorough examination) and conclusions are assigned to a university’s ‘contact point for human rights’.</p>
<p><strong>The Flemish practice</strong></p>
<p>Except for <a href="https://www.ugent.be/en/ghentuniv/mission/human-rights">Ghent University</a>, the Flemish universities’ human rights commissions have so far only dealt with collaborations with Israeli entities. Assessment of multilateral collaboration, in particular in the context of the EU-Israel Association Agreement, has been very challenging and led to divergent results. Ghent University decided to discontinue collaboration with Israeli partners in 13 multilateral collaborations with European funding and has initiated its withdrawal. VUB successfully withdrew from one, but <a href="https://www.bruzz.be/actua/samenleving/studentenstaking-aan-vub-tegen-banden-met-israel-minstens-15-proffen-staken-mee">three continue, among which one with an Israeli ministry</a>. The University of Antwerp <a href="https://medialibrary.uantwerpen.be/files/12115/8f8c1a7b-674d-4617-ac03-c603a1b4e375.pdf?_gl=1*7pou94*_gcl_au*MTY5MDcyNjA1LjE3NTE3MjU4OTE.*_ga*MTc5MDI4MTM1NS4xNjg4NjQxOTYy*_ga_WVC36ZPB1Y*czE3NTc2NjY3MjMkbzUwMyRnMSR0MTc1NzY2NzY5MSRqMjAkbDAkaDExMzUxOTc2Nzc.">decided to continue ongoing EU funded projects</a>, unless its human rights commission (MiHRS) would assess the collaboration negatively. In practice, collaboration has been continued or even initiated despite a negative MiHRS advice. KULeuven’s human rights commission decided <a href="https://kuleuvenblogt.be/2024/05/02/open-dialoog-is-wat-ons-samenhoudt/#more-13289">not to end ongoing collaboration with Israeli universities</a> (often a part of Horizon Europe consortia). A new Horizon Europe project with the involvement of an Israeli university was <a href="https://www.leuvenactueel.be/nieuws/nieuws/46656/ku-leuven-start-nieuwe-samenwerking-met-israelische-universit">allegedly </a>started on 1 March 2025. <a href="https://www.uhasselt.be/en/about-hasselt-university/uhasselt-statements/statement-on-gaza-and-israel">UHasselt too</a> continued European funded collaborations in which one or more Israeli universities were involved after screening by its Human Rights Commission.</p>
<p>At Ghent University, experience since 2017 shows that when collaborations cannot take place or need to be stopped as a result of the HRA, the reason is usually not the expected impact of the project, but in almost all cases the human rights record of the partner. The separate assessment of each partner is a principled choice of the model, inspired by the business and human rights framework. Yet the extreme nature of the human rights violations in Gaza caused many Ghent University students and staff – in particular those involved in a solidarity ‘occupation’ of a university building- to reject that choice, and argue instead for a country-based boycott.</p>
<p>The mobilisation around Gaza also showed the need to communicate more about the results of the HRA, both internally and externally.</p>
<p>Together with the inconsistent outcomes of the HRA at the five Flemish universities, these challenges that were highlighted by the Gaza crisis, are expected to result in further improvement to these young and learning models of human rights screening.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
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		<post-id xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">87208</post-id>	</item>
		<item>
		<title>When Transfer to a Different Job is a Reasonable Accommodation: HR Rail (5/8)</title>
		<link>https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/when-transfer-to-a-different-job-is-a-reasonable-accommodation-hr-rail-5-8/</link>
					<comments>https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/when-transfer-to-a-different-job-is-a-reasonable-accommodation-hr-rail-5-8/#respond</comments>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Mark Bell]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 28 Feb 2025 07:31:04 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Blog]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Belgium]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Court of Justice of the European Union]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/?p=85615</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[What happens when an employee with a disability is unable to return to their original job and no type of adjustment will make this possible? This was the dilemma facing the Court of Justice (“the Court”) in XXXX v HR Rail. Facts and central question  The complainant was a trainee working as a technician on [&#8230;]]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong>What happens when an employee with a disability is unable to return to their original job and no type of adjustment will make this possible? This was the dilemma facing the </strong><a href="https://european-union.europa.eu/institutions-law-budget/institutions-and-bodies/search-all-eu-institutions-and-bodies/court-justice-european-union-cjeu_en"><strong>Court of Justice</strong></a><strong> (“the Court”) in </strong><a href="https://curia.europa.eu/juris/document/document.jsf?text=&amp;docid=253723&amp;pageIndex=0&amp;doclang=en&amp;mode=lst&amp;dir=&amp;occ=first&amp;part=1&amp;cid=26841258"><strong><em>XXXX v HR Rail</em></strong></a><strong>. </strong></p>
<p><strong>Facts and central question</strong></p>
<p><strong> </strong>The complainant was a trainee working as a technician on the Belgian railways. After one year, he was diagnosed with a heart condition and this required the fitting of a pacemaker. The railway tracks contained electromagnetic fields, but the pacemaker was incompatible with repeated exposure to such fields. Consequently, the company’s medical centre confirmed that he was unfit to continue in his existing position. The complainant was temporarily reassigned to the role of warehouseman, but he was dismissed after three months. According to the company’s staff rules, reassignment in the event of disability was only available to permanent members of staff and not to trainees.</p>
<p>Was this compatible with the company’s duty to provide reasonable accommodation for employees with disabilities? The Belgian Conseil d’État referred this question to the Court for an interpretation of Article 5 of <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32000L0078">the Employment Equality Directive</a>. This states that “employers shall take appropriate measures, where needed in a particular case, to enable a person with a disability to have access to, participate in, or advance in employment, or to undergo training, unless such measures would impose a disproportionate burden on the employer.” This does not provide a clear indication as to whether ‘appropriate measures’ should encompass reassignment to a different job.</p>
<p><strong>(Extent of) reassignment as reasonable accommodation</strong></p>
<p><a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_BRI(2019)642237">Advocate-General (AG)</a> Rantos <a href="https://curia.europa.eu/juris/document/document.jsf?text=&amp;docid=249082&amp;pageIndex=0&amp;doclang=EN&amp;mode=lst&amp;dir=&amp;occ=first&amp;part=1&amp;cid=27249876">advised</a> the Court that ‘appropriate measures’ should be interpreted as including reassignment to another position. Taking a purposive approach, he argued that reasonable accommodation was a/the “legal translation of the social concept of disability” and “the means to achieve substantive equality in a concrete and individualised situation of discrimination” (para 84). Drawing inspiration from the UN <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-persons-disabilities">Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities</a> (CRPD) and the EU <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:12012P/TXT">Charter of Fundamental Rights</a>, he contended that “people with disabilities should be kept in employment rather than being dismissed for unfitness, which should only be a last resort” (para 68). The Court’s <a href="https://curia.europa.eu/juris/document/document.jsf?text=&amp;docid=253723&amp;pageIndex=0&amp;doclang=en&amp;mode=lst&amp;dir=&amp;occ=first&amp;part=1&amp;cid=26841258">judgment</a> followed his reasoning. In particular, it drew attention to <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32000L0078">recital 20</a>. This states: “appropriate measures should be provided, i.e. effective and practical measures to adapt the workplace to the disability” In the view of the Court, adaptation of the ‘workplace’ extended/extends to reassignment to another position therein (para 41).</p>
<p><em>HR Rail </em>is a very significant decision because it confirms that employers should consider reassignment to another position, even in respect of non-permanent trainees. This interpretation of the Directive was not a foregone conclusion. For example, in 2019, the <a href="https://www.courts.ie/acc/alfresco/77ed9bc6-3c69-482e-9390-a73c341a3192/2019_IESC_63_1.pdf/pdf#view=fitH">Irish Supreme Court</a> held that appropriate measures did not extend to reassignment to “an entirely different job” (MacMenamin J, para106). Nevertheless, the possibility for reassignment remains contingent upon this not giving rise to a ‘disproportionate burden’ for the employer. The Court indicates that this will depend upon an assessment of the factual situation, which is a function performed by the national court (para 46). It observes, however, that the possibility of reassignment is “only available where there is at least one vacancy that the worker in question is capable of holding” (para 48). AG Rantos was more expansive on this issue. He advised that reassignment was subject to the complainant being “competent, capable and available to perform the essential functions of the new post” (para 74), and that this could not result in another worker being forced to “swap jobs” (para 77).</p>
<p><em>HR Rail </em>confirms that employers have to explore the possibility of reassignment if an employee cannot continue in their existing position and suitable internal vacancies exist elsewhere in the organization. While this is consistent with the rationale of the CRPD, there is the potential for this to disrupt workplace norms about how internal vacancies are filled. Such opportunities may be sought after by other employees, eg because they offer a favourable schedule or working conditions. Consequently, challenges may arise when employers seek to balance their accommodation duties with wider issues of human resource management or industrial relations. For large organizations, this makes it advisable to put in place clear procedures for handling reassignment as a type of reasonable accommodation.</p>
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		<post-id xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">85615</post-id>	</item>
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		<title>Het wreedste stuk van allemaal: het EHRM weigert zich te buigen over onverdoofd slachten in religieuze context</title>
		<link>https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/de-wreedste-kap-van-ze-allemaal-het-ehrm-weigert-zich-te-buigen-over-onverdoofd-slachten-in-religieuze-context/</link>
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		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Elijah Granet and Geert van Calster]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Wed, 10 Apr 2024 08:00:18 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Blog]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Belgium]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ECHR]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/?p=83933</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[Na vergeefse pogingen voor het Hof van Justitie van de Europese Unie (HvJ-EU) en het Belgisch Grondwettelijk Hof, was er voor de coalitie van joodse en moslimgroepen voor het Europees Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens (EHRM) weinig hoop op een succesvolle poging tot aanvechting van de regionale besluiten die in België het onverdoofd [&#8230;]]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong>Na vergeefse pogingen voor het </strong><a href="https://curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=C-336/19"><strong>Hof van Justitie van de Europese Unie</strong></a><strong> (HvJ-EU) en het </strong><a href="https://www.const-court.be/public/f/2021/2021-118f.pdf"><strong>Belgisch Grondwettelijk Hof</strong></a><strong>, was er voor de coalitie van joodse en moslimgroepen voor het Europees Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens (EHRM) weinig hoop op een succesvolle poging tot aanvechting van de regionale besluiten die in België het onverdoofd religieus slachten <em>de facto </em>verbieden. Zoals verwacht, en in lijn met </strong><a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-58738"><strong>eerdere EHRM rechtspraak</strong></a><strong>, ging het Straatsburgs Hof hier op 13 februari (</strong><a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre?i=001-230858"><strong>Executief van de Moslims van België t. België</strong></a><strong>) niet in mee. Echter is het er bovendien zelfs in geslaagd teleur te stellen door te weigeren zich grondig over de Europese godsdienstvrijheid en haar garanties te buigen. </strong></p>
<p><strong>Achtergrond</strong></p>
<p>De Belgische regio’s Vlaanderen (<a href="https://etaamb.openjustice.be/fr/decret-du-07-juillet-2017_n2017030639.html">2017</a>) en Wallonië (<a href="https://etaamb.openjustice.be/fr/decret-du-04-octobre-2018_n2018015578.html">2018</a>; een codificatie van een decreet uit 2017) verplichten met nieuwe decreten het verdoven van herkauwers alvorens ze te slachten. Onverdoofd slachten is slechts toegelaten in limitatieve gevallen van visvangst, jacht of ongediertebestrijding. Wat betreft religieuze slachtingen, voorzien de decreten in een ‘uitzondering’, doch vereisen ook hier nog steeds een bepaalde mate van bedwelming wat onverenigbaar is met Joods (en bepaalde interpretaties van Islamitisch) recht.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.echr.coe.int/documents/d/echr/guide_art_9_eng">Artikel 9 van het Europees Verdrag voor de Rechten van de Mens</a> (EVRM) garandeert de vrijheid van eenieder om zijn godsdienst te belijden, welke aan geen andere beperkingen is onderworpen dan die die bij wet voorzien zijn en in een democratische samenleving noodzakelijk zijn in het belang van de openbare orde, gezondheid en goede zeden. Het EHRM werd bijgevolg gevraagd na te gaan of deze decreten daartoe noodzakelijk zijn en of de inperkingen van de mensenrechten van moslims en joden daarmee evenredig zijn.</p>
<p>De Belgische overheid bepleitte terecht dat dierenwelzijn een legitiem doel is in een democratische maatschappij. Met veel minder argumentatie daarentegen, stelde België dat het verdovingselement op religieus vlak niet essentieel is (bv. para 84). Dit suggereert, met alle respect, een gebrek aan kennis van de Talmoed en de Hadith bij de advocaten. Bovendien beargumenteerde België, weerom weinig onderbouwd, dat in het licht van het belang van dierenwelzijn en bij gebrek aan minder verregaande doch geschikte maatregelen, een absoluut verbod evenredig is.</p>
<p><strong>De beslissing van het EHRM</strong></p>
<p>Het EHRM erkende dat het niet aan België is om te bepalen wat religieus essentieel is (para 85), maar dat de partijen in kwestie een coherente, sterke en serieuze religieuze waarde hechten aan onverdoofd slachten en daarom beschermd worden door Artikel 9 (para 87). Het Hof concludeerde bovendien dat een evoluerend begrip als ‘openbare orde en goede zeden’ ook dierenwelzijn kan omvatten (para 100) en dat lidstaten vrij zijn om, binnen hun appreciatiemarge, dat te benadrukken (para 106).</p>
<p>Wat betreft de proportionaliteitstoets, stak het Hof snel haar kop in het zand onder het mom van het subsidiariteitsbeginsel. Het Hof plooide voor de (betwiste) conclusies van de Belgische overheden over het gebrek aan minder verregaande geschikte maatregelen en stelde, ongegrond, dat de gewestelijke overheden grondig hun huiswerk hadden gemaakt (para 118). Het Hof baseerde zich, net als het HvJ-EU en het Grondwettelijk Hof, op het aanbod aan onverdoofd geslacht vlees in het Brusselse Gewest (waar geen dergelijk verbod geldt) en in andere landen (para 122).</p>
<p>Tenslotte stelde het Hof, weerom zonder argumentatie, dat er geen sprake was van discriminatie, aangezien de jacht geenszins vergelijkbaar is met religieuze slachtingen.</p>
<p><strong>Analyse</strong></p>
<p>Het subsidiariteitsbeginsel is een welgekend basisbeginsel van het Europees recht, doch daarom geen reden om de vereiste van bewijs te laten vallen. Een Europees toezicht op vlak van mensenrechten verliest elke bestaansreden als het EHRM ja-knikkend stelt dat een lidstaat haar huiswerk wel gemaakt heeft. In plaats van de vereiste noodzakelijkheid en evenredigheid aan te tonen, baseerde de Belgische Staat zich op eerder theologische argumenten.</p>
<p>Daarnaast zet het Hof, net als het HvJ-EU, ook een mogelijke houdbaarheidsdatum op haar eigen arrest door te stellen dat de personen in kwestie nog steeds onverdoofd geslacht vlees kunnen consumeren, zolang het vlees elders geslacht werd (para 122). Deze rechtvaardiging vervalt immers eens andere staten soortgelijke maatregelen treffen. Bovendien betekent dit dat de rechten van minderheden afhangen van de productie van zulke producten in andere (delen van) staten.</p>
<p>Bovendien negeert het Hof, door te focussen op de consumptie van het vlees, een belangrijk deel van de bescherming in Artikel 9. Het is immers niet enkel de vleesconsumptie die onder de geloofsbelijdenis valt, maar ook de bijhorende slachtingsrituelen. Een vergelijkend voorbeeld: de vrijheid van geloofsbelijdenis van christenen zou flagrant geschonden zijn indien de consecratie door de priester verboden is, maar christenen wel buitenlandse geconsacreerde hosties zouden mogen eten.</p>
<p>Hoven en rechtbanken zijn zich terecht bewust van het feit dat een proportionaliteitstoets kan leiden tot een vermomd tweede wetgevend proces. Echter is het ook mogelijk om te ver in de andere richting door te slaan. Als een beperking op een mensenrecht dat recht bijna tenietdoet, moet het Hof wel grondig nagaan of er sprake is van discriminatie en proportionaliteit. Het Hof heeft <em>in casu</em> de essentie van een mensenrecht opgeofferd zonder zelf enig onderzoek te verrichten. De beslissing is misschien politiek verantwoord, ze is dat allesbehalve op mensenrechtelijk en juridisch vlak en wordt terecht aangevochten bij de Grote Kamer.</p>
<p><span style="text-decoration: underline;">** <em>Many thanks to Rob Rooman for the Dutch translation of this post</em> **</span></p>
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		<title>Der grausamste Schnitt von allen? Der EGMR weigert sich, in Sachen Schächten einzuschreiten</title>
		<link>https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/der-grausamste-schnitt-von-allen-der-egmr-weigert-sich-in-sachen-schachten-einzuschreiten/</link>
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		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Elijah Granet and Geert van Calster]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Wed, 10 Apr 2024 08:00:21 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Blog]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Belgium]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ECHR]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/?p=83929</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[Sowohl vor dem Gerichtshof der Europäischen Union (EuGH) als auch vor dem Belgischen Verfassungsgerichtshof kämpften ein Bündnis muslimischer und jüdischer Gruppen sowie Einzelpersonen gegen regionale belgische Vorschriften zum Verbot des rituellen Schlachtens. Sie sind in beiden Verfahren unterlegen. Die Hoffnung, dass der Europäische Gerichtshof für Menschenrechte (EGMR) abweichend entscheiden würde, war gering. Vor dem Hintergrund der früheren Rechtsprechung des EGMR zum [&#8230;]]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><b>Sowohl vor dem <a id="OWAd6f81db0-ec4c-5212-7229-f4db411d72a1" class="x_OWAAutoLink" href="https://curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=C-336/19" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-loopstyle="linkonly" data-linkindex="0">Gerichtshof der Europäischen Union</a> (EuGH) als auch vor dem <a id="OWA6cb4fc13-7a78-488c-ae74-32bf2070dcb5" class="x_OWAAutoLink" href="https://www.const-court.be/public/f/2021/2021-118f.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-loopstyle="linkonly" data-linkindex="1">Belgischen Verfassungsgerichtshof</a> kämpften ein Bündnis muslimischer und jüdischer Gruppen sowie Einzelpersonen gegen regionale belgische Vorschriften zum Verbot des rituellen Schlachtens. Sie sind in beiden Verfahren unterlegen. Die Hoffnung, dass der Europäische Gerichtshof für Menschenrechte (EGMR) abweichend entscheiden würde, war gering. Vor dem Hintergrund <a id="OWAeb033591-772f-b477-1db7-1e2a98eac194" class="x_OWAAutoLink" href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-58738" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-loopstyle="linkonly" data-linkindex="2">der früheren Rechtsprechung</a> des EGMR zum religiösen Schlachten bereitet der Straßburger Gerichtshof mit der Entscheidung vom 13. Februar 2024 in der Rechtssache <i><a id="OWAf0591fac-baf0-b17a-3fae-0e604ef79a6c" class="x_OWAAutoLink" href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre?i=001-230858" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-loopstyle="linkonly" data-linkindex="3">Executief van de Moslims van België gegen Belgien</a> </i>eine Enttäuschung, indem er versäumte, sich mit den europäischen Garantien der Religionsfreiheit eingehend zu befassen.</b></p>
<p><b>Hintergrund</b></p>
<p>Die Vorschriften in den belgischen Regionen Flandern (<a id="OWA30c85449-04a9-1423-1dac-4fe288024b8e" class="x_OWAAutoLink" href="https://etaamb.openjustice.be/fr/decret-du-07-juillet-2017_n2017030639.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-loopstyle="linkonly" data-linkindex="4">2017</a>) und Wallonien (<a id="OWAca1d6275-e013-8a66-0ade-f1d7eec462ca" class="x_OWAAutoLink" href="https://etaamb.openjustice.be/fr/decret-du-04-octobre-2018_n2018015578.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-loopstyle="linkonly" data-linkindex="5">2018</a> (als Kodifizierung eines früheren Erlasses aus dem Jahre 2017)) schreiben die Betäubung vor der Tötung von Wiederkäuern vor. Diese Dekrete enthalten pauschale Ausnahmen für die unbetäubte Schlachtung bei der Jagd oder Fischerei sowie bei der Schädlingsbekämpfung. Für religiöse Schlachtungen beinhalten sie eine „Ausnahme“, die weiterhin eine Form der Betäubung vorschreibt. Die jüdischen Gesetze und einige Schulen des islamischen Rechts verbieten jedoch die Betäubung eines Tieres vor der Schlachtung in jeder Form.</p>
<p>Die Garantie in <a id="OWA6460a87f-8e17-c534-d744-24a2ee4bb8b0" class="x_OWAAutoLink" href="https://www.echr.coe.int/documents/d/echr/guide_art_9_eng" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-loopstyle="linkonly" data-linkindex="6">Artikel 9 EMRK</a>, seine Religion zu bekennen, kann durch ein Gesetz eingeschränkt werden, wenn dies in einer demokratischen Gesellschaft zum Schutz der öffentlichen Moral, der öffentlichen Ordnung oder der Rechte und Freiheiten anderer notwendig ist. Der EGMR musste sich mit der Frage befassen, ob die auferlegten Beschränkungen notwendig waren, um ihr Ziel zu erreichen, und ob der daraus resultierende Eingriff in die Rechte von Muslimen und Juden verhältnismäßig war.</p>
<p>Belgien behauptete zu Recht, dass der Tierschutz in einer demokratischen Gesellschaft als ein legitimes Ziel gelte. Weitaus weniger überzeugend führte Belgien aus, das Betäubungselement sei aus religiöser Sicht nicht besonders relevant (siehe z.B. Rn. 84). Die auf Seiten Belgiens plädierenden Anwälte haben zu ihren talmudischen und haditischen Fachkenntnisse jedoch nichts vorgetragen. Mit fester Überzeugung, wenngleich ohne Beweise behauptete Belgien, dass keine andere Maßnahme das Wohlbefinden der Tiere schützen könne und dass das Gebot, Tiere zu schützen, in diesem Lichte bedeute, dass die radikale Maßnahme verhältnismäßig sei.</p>
<p><b>Entscheidung des EGMR</b></p>
<p>Der EGMR teilte die Meinung, dass es nicht Belgiens Aufgabe ist, zu befinden, welcher Teil des religiösen Schlachtens heilig ist (Rn. 85); die Anhänger in dem Rechtsstreit und ihre kohärente, ernsthafte und wichtige Überzeugung in Bezug auf die Art und Weise des religiösen Schlachtens werden durch Artikel 9 geschützt (Rn. 87). Der Gerichtshof kam außerdem zu dem Schluss, dass der sich entwickelnde Begriff der „öffentlichen Sittlichkeit“ den Tierschutz umfassen könnte (Rn. 100) und dass die Staaten sich dafür entscheiden könnten, innerhalb ihres Ermessensspielraums den Tierschutz besonders zu betonen (Rn. 106).</p>
<p>Als es jedoch darum ging, die Verhältnismäßigkeit und Notwendigkeit zu beurteilen, rief der EGMR „Subsidiarität“. Der Gerichtshof verwies vollumfänglich auf die Schlussfolgerungen Belgiens hinsichtlich der Verfügbarkeit weniger restriktiver Maßnahmen und versicherte, dass die Regionalparlamente ihre Hausaufgabe gründlich gemacht hätten (Rn. 118). Der EGMR, wie zuvor der EuGH und der Belgische Verfassungsgerichtshof, wies auf die Verfügbarkeit von Fleisch aus betäubungsloser Schlachtung in Brüssel (wo es kein solches Verbot gibt) oder aus anderen Staaten hin (Rn. 122).</p>
<p>Der EGMR stimmte bereitwillig (wieder ohne hinreichende Begründung) zu, es liege keine Ungleichbehandlung vor, denn die Jagd lasse sich nicht mit dem Schächten gleichsetzen.</p>
<p><b>Anmerkung</b></p>
<p>Der Ermessensspielraum nationaler Behörden ist eine abgedroschene Tugend des Europarechts, dieser Grundsatz ersetzt jedoch nicht das Erfordernis an Begründung und Beweis. Wenn der Gerichtshof die schlichte Behauptung eines Staates, er habe seine Hausaufgabe erledigt, abnickt und billigt, dann entbehrt die richterliche Kontrolle der Menschenrechte jeglichen Sinnes. Belgien bemühte sich nicht wirklich um eine Rechtfertigung und brachte vielmehr Argumente vor, die theologische Aspekte berührten.</p>
<p>Wie schon der EuGH, fügt auch der EGMR seiner Entscheidung eine potenzielle Auslaufklausel hinzu. Die in Rn. 122 angeführte Rechtfertigung durch die Möglichkeit der ausländischen Beschaffung entfällt offensichtlich, wenn andere Staaten in einem Dominoeffekt ähnliche Verbote verhängen. Dies bedeutet auch, dass die Rechte von Minderheiten in einem Staat davon abhängen, ob andere Staaten solche Produkte herstellen oder nicht.</p>
<p>Darüber hinaus schweigt das Urteil mit seiner Hervorhebung des individuellen Fleischkonsums über den Kerngehalt der Garantie nach Artikel 9. Für diejenigen, die sich zu dem betreffenden Glauben bekennen, ist sowohl der Verzehr des nach dem Ritual hergestellten Fleisches als auch der Zugang zu dem Ritual selbst Art des religiösen Ausdrucks. Um es in einer vergleichenden Perspektive zu betrachten: Die katholische Religionsausübungsfreiheit (hier die Gemeinschaft mit Christus) würde verletzt, wenn die Hostienkonsekration vor Ort verboten würde, der Verzehr konsekrierter Hostien anderswo aber garantiert wäre.</p>
<p>Ferner zeigt sich die Judikative darüber besorgt, dass diese Vorgehensweise bei der Verhältnismäßigkeitsprüfung dazu führen kann, dass die gerichtliche Überprüfung zu einem Gesetzgebungsverfahren wird. Es ist auch möglich, zu weit in die andere Richtung abzubiegen. Wenn ein Eingriff ein wichtiges Recht auslöscht, muss die Angemessenheit ordnungsgemäß geprüft werden und offensichtliche Diskriminierungen sind zu hinterfragen. Der EGMR hat zugelassen, dass der Wesensgehalt eines Grundrechts geopfert wird, ohne eine einzige Nachfrage gestellt zu haben. Das mag gute Politik sein, aber es ist miserable Menschenrechtsrechtsprechung und wird nun zu Recht vor der Großen Kammer angegriffen.</p>
<p><span style="text-decoration: underline;">** <em>Many thanks to Dawid Marusczyk for the German translation of this post</em> **</span></p>
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		<title>Le coup le plus cruel de tous? La CEDH refuse d’intervenir sur l’abattage rituel</title>
		<link>https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/le-coup-le-plus-cruel-de-tous-la-cedh-refuse-dintervenir-sur-labattage-rituel/</link>
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		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Elijah Granet and Geert van Calster]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Wed, 10 Apr 2024 08:00:16 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Blog]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Belgium]]></category>
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					<description><![CDATA[Devant la Cour de justice de l&#8217;Union européenne (CJUE) et la Cour constitutionnelle belge, une coalition de groupes et d&#8217;individus musulmans et juifs ont lutté contre des réglementations régionales belges interdisant effectivement l&#8217;abattage rituel. Ils ont échoué dans les deux instances. L&#8217;espoir était mince que l’approche de la Cour européenne des droits de l&#8217;homme (« [&#8230;]]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong>Devant la <a href="https://curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=C-336/19">Cour de justice de l&#8217;Union européenne</a> (CJUE) et la <a href="https://www.const-court.be/public/f/2021/2021-118f.pdf">Cour constitutionnelle belge</a>, une coalition de groupes et d&#8217;individus musulmans et juifs ont lutté contre des réglementations régionales belges interdisant effectivement l&#8217;abattage rituel. Ils ont échoué dans les deux instances. L&#8217;espoir était mince que l’approche de la Cour européenne des droits de l&#8217;homme (« la CEDH ») soit différente. Par conséquent, en ce compris dans le contexte de la <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-58738">jurisprudence antérieure</a> de la CEDH sur l&#8217;abattage rituel, la décision de la Cour de Strasbourg du 13 février dans l&#8217;affaire <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre?i=001-230858"><em>Executief van de Moslims van België c. Belgique</em></a> déçoit dans sa volonté de ne pas s&#8217;engager correctement avec les garanties européennes de la liberté religieuse.</strong></p>
<p><strong>Contexte</strong></p>
<p>Les régions belges de Flandre (<a href="https://etaamb.openjustice.be/fr/decret-du-07-juillet-2017_n2017030639.html">2017</a>) et de Wallonie (<a href="https://etaamb.openjustice.be/fr/decret-du-04-octobre-2018_n2018015578.html">2018</a>; une codification d&#8217;un décret antérieur de 2017) exigent l&#8217;étourdissement avant l&#8217;abattage des ruminants. Les décrets pertinents contiennent des exceptions générales autorisant l&#8217;abattage sans étourdissement dans le cas de la chasse ou de la pêche, ainsi que pour la lutte contre les nuisibles. Pour l&#8217;abattage rituel, ils contiennent une « exception » qui exige toujours une forme d&#8217;étourdissement. Cependant, la loi juive et certaines interprétations de la loi islamique interdisent l&#8217;étourdissement d&#8217;un animal avant l&#8217;abattage sous quelque forme que ce soit.</p>
<p>La garantie prévue à <a href="https://www.echr.coe.int/documents/d/echr/guide_art_9_eng">l&#8217;article 9</a> de la Convention européenne des droits de l&#8217;homme consistant en la liberté de manifester sa religion peut être restreinte par la loi, si cela est nécessaire dans une société démocratique pour la protection de la morale publique, de l&#8217;ordre public ou des droits et libertés d&#8217;autrui. La tâche de la CEDH était de décider si les restrictions en question étaient nécessaires pour atteindre leur objectif, et si la violation consécutive des droits des musulmans et des juifs était proportionnée.</p>
<p>La Belgique a affirmé, avec justification, que le bien-être animal est un objectif légitime dans une société démocratique. Avec beaucoup moins de justification, elle a également suggéré que l&#8217;élément de l&#8217;étourdissement n&#8217;était pas particulièrement essentiel sur le plan religieux (voir, par exemple, le paragraphe 84). Avec force, mais sans preuve jusqu&#8217;à présent, la Belgique a en outre affirmé qu&#8217;aucune autre mesure ne pourrait préserver le bien-être animal et que la nécessité de protéger les animaux signifiait que la mesure absolutiste était donc proportionnée.</p>
<p><strong>La décision de la CEDH</strong></p>
<p>La CEDH a accepté qu&#8217;il n&#8217;appartient pas à la Belgique de dicter quelle partie de l&#8217;abattage rituel est sacrée (paragraphe 85) ; les adeptes impliqués dans le litige et leur croyance cohérente, sérieuse et importante concernant le mode de l&#8217;abattage rituel sont protégés par l&#8217;article 9 (paragraphe 87). La Cour a également conclu que la notion évolutive de &#8220;morale publique&#8221; pouvait englober le bien-être animal (paragraphe 100) et que les États pouvaient choisir, dans le cadre de leur marge d&#8217;appréciation, de mettre l&#8217;accent sur la protection des animaux (paragraphe 106).</p>
<p>Cependant, lorsqu&#8217;il s&#8217;est agi de la proportionnalité et de la nécessité des mesures spécifiques, la CEDH a seulement fait valoir la &#8220;subsidiarité&#8221;. Elle s’en est entièrement remise aux conclusions de l’État quant à la disponibilité de mesures moins restrictives et  nous a assuré que les parlements régionaux avaient bien fait leurs devoirs (paragraphe 118). La CEDH, tout comme la CJUE et la Cour constitutionnelle belge avant elle, s&#8217;est appuyée sur la disponibilité de viande provenant d&#8217;abattages sans étourdissement dans la région de Bruxelles (où il n&#8217;y a pas une telle interdiction) ou provenant d&#8217;autres États (paragraphe 122).</p>
<p>La CEDH a également volontiers convenu qu’il n’y avait pas de discrimination puisque la chasse n&#8217;était en rien comparable à l&#8217;abattage rituel, à nouveau sans fournir de raisons.</p>
<p><strong>Analyse</strong></p>
<p>La déférence envers les autorités nationales est une vertu bien connue du droit européen, mais elle ne permet pas de contourner l&#8217;obligation de fournir des preuves. Le fait que la CEDH se contente d&#8217;acquiescer à un État qui prétend avoir fait ses devoirs rend le contrôle juridictionnel européen en matière de droits de l&#8217;homme inopérant. La Belgique s&#8217;est à peine souciée de justifier ses actes, préférant avancer des arguments touchant à des points de théologie.</p>
<p>Tout comme la CJUE avant elle, la CEDH ajoute également une éventuelle clause de fin de validité à son propre jugement. La justification au paragraphe 122 de la possibilité de s&#8217;approvisionner à l&#8217;étranger disparaît clairement si et quand les États, dans un effet domino, commencent à imposer des interdictions similaires. Cela signifie également que les droits des minorités dans un État dépendent de la disponibilité de tels produits dans d&#8217;autres États.</p>
<p>Le jugement, en mettant l&#8217;accent sur la consommation individuelle de la viande, ne traite pas de ce qui est sans doute une partie essentielle de la protection de l&#8217;article 9. Pour ceux qui professent la foi en question, ce sont la consommation de la viande produite conformément aux rites et l&#8217;accès aux rites eux-mêmes, qui font partie de cette expression religieuse. Pour mettre cela en perspective comparative : la liberté religieuse catholique (ici la Communion avec le Christ) serait violée si la Consécration de l&#8217;Hostie était interdite localement mais que la consommation d&#8217;Hosties Consacrées ailleurs était autorisée.</p>
<p>Par ailleurs, les tribunaux sont légitimement préoccupés par le risque que l’analyse de la proportionnalité ne transforme le contrôle judiciaire en un processus législatif. Pourtant, il est possible de basculer trop loin dans l&#8217;autre direction. Lorsqu&#8217;une restriction porte atteinte à un droit significatif, la proportionnalité doit être évaluée correctement et une discrimination évidente doit être remise en question. La CEDH a laissé l&#8217;essence d&#8217;un droit être sacrifiée sans même poser une seule question approfondie. Cela peut être une bonne politique, mais c&#8217;est une loi sur les droits de l&#8217;homme abyssale, et c&#8217;est à juste titre qu’un appel est porté devant la Grande Chambre.</p>
<p><em>** <u>Many thanks to Charlotte de Meeûs for this French translation of this post</u> **</em></p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
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		<post-id xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">83923</post-id>	</item>
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		<title>The Unkindest Cut of All? The ECtHR Declines to Intervene on Religious Slaughter</title>
		<link>https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/the-unkindest-cut-of-all-the-ecthr-declines-to-intervene-on-religious-slaughter/</link>
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		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Elijah Granet and Geert van Calster]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Wed, 10 Apr 2024 08:00:04 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Blog]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Belgium]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ECHR]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/?p=83885</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[Both before the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) and the Belgian Constitutional Court, a coalition of Muslim and Jewish groups and individuals have fought Belgian regional regulations that effectively ban religious slaughter. They lost in both instances. Hopes were not high that the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) would be much [&#8230;]]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong>Both before the <a href="https://curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=C-336/19">Court of Justice of the European Union</a> (CJEU) and the <a href="https://www.const-court.be/public/f/2021/2021-118f.pdf">Belgian Constitutional Court</a>, a coalition of Muslim and Jewish groups and individuals have fought Belgian regional regulations that effectively ban religious slaughter. They lost in both instances. Hopes were not high that the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) would be much different. Accordingly, including in the context of the ECtHR’s <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-58738">prior case law on religious slaughter</a>, the Strasbourg Court’s decision of 13 February 2024 in <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre?i=001-230858"><em>Executief van de Moslims van België v Belgium</em></a> disappoints in its unwillingness to engage properly with Europe’s guarantees of religious freedom.</strong></p>
<p><strong>Background</strong></p>
<p>The Belgian regions of Flanders (<a href="https://etaamb.openjustice.be/fr/decret-du-07-juillet-2017_n2017030639.html">2017</a>) and Wallonia (<a href="https://etaamb.openjustice.be/fr/decret-du-04-octobre-2018_n2018015578.html">2018</a>; a codification of an earlier, 2017 decree) both mandate stunning before the killing of ruminants. The relevant decrees contain blanket exceptions allowing unstunned slaughter for hunting, fishing, or pest control. For religious slaughter they contain an ‘exception’ which still requires a form of stunning. However, Jewish law and some interpretations of Islamic law prohibit stunning an animal prior to slaughter in any form.</p>
<p>The guarantee under <a href="https://www.echr.coe.int/documents/d/echr/guide_art_9_eng">Article 9 ECHR </a>of the freedom to manifest one’s religion may be infringed by law as necessary in a democratic society for the protection of public morals, public order, or the rights and freedoms of others. The ECtHR’s task was to decide whether the restrictions at issue were necessary to achieve their aim and whether the consequent infringement of the rights of Muslims and Jews was proportionate.</p>
<p>Belgium claimed, with justification, that animal welfare is a legitimate aim in a democratic society. With far less justification, it also suggested that the stunning element was not particularly religiously essential (see, <em>eg </em>[84]). Yet no Talmudic and Hadith expertise was claimed by Belgium’s lawyers. With sweeping force but without evidence to this point, Belgium further claimed that no other measure could possibly preserve animal welfare and that the need to protect animals meant that the absolutist measure was thus proportionate.</p>
<p><strong>The ECtHR’s decision</strong></p>
<p>The ECtHR accepted that it is not for Belgium to dictate what part of religious slaughter is sacred [85]; the adherents in the litigation and their coherent, serious, and important belief regarding the manner of religious slaughter are protected by Article 9 [87]. The Court also concluded that the evolving notion of ‘public morals’ could come to encompass animal welfare [100] and that States could choose to, within their margin of appreciation, emphasise the protection of animals [106].</p>
<p>However, when it came to proportionality and necessity, the Court merely cried out ‘subsidiarity’. It entirely deferred to the defending State’s conclusions as to the availability of less restrictive measures and assured us that the regional parliaments had thoroughly done their homework [118]. The ECtHR, like the CJEU and the Belgian Constitutional Court before it, fell back on the availability of meat from unstunned slaughter in the Brussels region (where there is no such ban) or from other states [122].</p>
<p>The ECtHR also readily agreed that no discrimination was present since hunting was nothing like religious slaughter, again without providing reasons.</p>
<p><strong>Analysis</strong></p>
<p>Deference to national authorities are trite virtues of European law, but they do not erase the requirement for evidence. The Court simply nodding to a State which claims to have done its homework, makes European human rights judicial control nugatory. Belgium barely bothered with justification, instead advancing arguments that touched onto points of theology.</p>
<p>Like the CJEU before it, the ECtHR also adds a potential sunset clause to its own ruling. The paragraph 122 justification of the possibility of foreign procurement clearly falls away if and when States in a domino effect start imposing similar bans. This also means that the rights of minorities in any one State become dependent on whether or not other States produce such products.</p>
<p>The judgment with its emphasis on the individual’s consumption of the meat also fails to engage with a core part of the Article 9 protection. To those professing the faiths at issue, both consumption of the meat produced in accordance with the rites, and access to the rites themselves, are part of their religious expression. To put it in a comparative perspective: Catholic freedom of religious expression (the Communion with Christ) would be infringed if the Consecration of the Host were banned locally, but the consumption of Consecrated Hosts carried out elsewhere were guaranteed.</p>
<p>Further, courts are concerned that proportionality analysis may turn judicial review into a legislative process. Yet, it is possible to shift too far into the other direction. Where an infringement erases a significant right, proportionality must be properly tested and evident discrimination must be second-guessed. The ECtHR has let the essence of a core right be sacrificed without a single searching question. This may be good politics, but it is abysmal human rights law, and it is rightfully being appealed to the Grand Chamber.</p>
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		<post-id xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">83885</post-id>	</item>
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		<title>Tide Turning on Australia’s Inadequate Climate Policy? A Challenge from First Nations Peoples in the Torres Strait</title>
		<link>https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/tide-turning-on-australias-inadequate-climate-policy-a-challenge-from-first-nations-peoples-in-the-torres-strait/</link>
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		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Madeleine McGregor]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Wed, 13 Mar 2024 09:00:29 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Blog]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Australia]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Belgium]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Germany]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Netherlands]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/?p=83747</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[The low-lying islands of Zendath Kes (Torres Strait) are the frontlines of the climate crisis. Without action, climate change will soon make these islands uninhabitable, rendering First Nations Guda Maluyligal people Australia’s first climate refugees and extinguishing thousands of years of traditional culture. Meanwhile, Australia remains among the world’s the highest GHG emitters per capita, [&#8230;]]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong>The low-lying islands of Zendath Kes (Torres Strait) are the frontlines of the climate crisis. Without action, climate change will soon make these islands uninhabitable, rendering First Nations Guda Maluyligal people Australia’s first climate refugees and extinguishing thousands of years of traditional culture. Meanwhile, Australia remains among the <a href="https://eciu.net/analysis/briefings/cop26/australia-big-impact-too-little-ambition">world’s the highest GHG emitters per capita</a>, despite the <a href="https://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/petition-of-torres-strait-islanders-to-the-united-nations-human-rights-committee-alleging-violations-stemming-from-australias-inaction-on-climate-change/#:~:text=On%20September%2023%2C%202022%2C%20the,private%20life%2C%20family%20and%20home.">2022 Human Rights Committee decision</a> that Australia’s failure to adapt to climate change constitutes a violation of Torres Strait Islanders’ rights under the ICCPR.</strong></p>
<p>Traditional Owners of the Boigu and Saibai islands, Uncle Pabai Pabai and Uncle Paul Kabai (Applicants), have <a href="https://www.fedcourt.gov.au/services/access-to-files-and-transcripts/online-files/pabai-v-australia">filed a class action in the Federal Court</a> against the Commonwealth Government for failure to protect them from climate change. Success would be ground-breaking for raising Australia’s climate mitigation efforts, yet hurdles remain, including in determining the role of science and the role of courts in climate change litigation.</p>
<p><strong>The Case</strong></p>
<p>The Applicants claim the Australian Government has breached a duty of care to take reasonable steps to protect the inhabitants of Zendath Kes, their traditional way of life, and the surrounding marine environment from the current and projected impacts of climate change. The claim emphasises the protection of traditional culture, known as <a href="https://www.tsra.gov.au/news-and-resources/annual-reports?a=5008">Ailan Kastom</a> – a spiritual and physical connection to the land and waters in Zendath Kes, which is existentially threatened by climate change.</p>
<p>The Applicants seek declaratory and injunctive relief in order to require the Government to reduce Australia’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in line with the “best available science” targets.</p>
<p><strong>Climate litigation in context</strong></p>
<p>“Climate framework cases”, like <em><a href="https://www.fedcourt.gov.au/services/access-to-files-and-transcripts/online-files/pabai-v-australia">Pabai Pabai v Commonwealth</a></em>, challenge a government’s overall efforts to reduce GHG emissions. The first successful framework case was <a href="https://www.urgenda.nl/en/themas/climate-case/"><em>Urgenda</em></a> in the Netherlands, with two other successful cases &#8211; <a href="https://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/vzw-klimaatzaak-v-kingdom-of-belgium-et-al/"><em>Klimaatzaak</em></a> (Belgium, on appeal)<em>, and </em><a href="https://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/neubauer-et-al-v-germany/"><em>Neubauer</em></a> (Germany). These cases have drawn on fundamental human rights (in addition to a duty of care). However, if successful, the Australian case would be the first to rely on solely on a tortious claim, in absence of Federal human rights protections.</p>
<p><strong>The Role of Science</strong></p>
<p>The <a href="https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/NDC/2022-06/Australias%20NDC%20June%202022%20Update%20%283%29.pdf">Federal Government’s current climate policy</a> is to cut GHG emissions by 43% (below 2005 levels) by 2030 and net-zero emissions by 2050. The Applicants argue that “best available science” requires Australia to cut its GHG emissions by 74% by 2030 (from 2005 levels) and achieve net-zero emissions by 2035, to keep global warming below 1.5 degrees. The Applicants claim that holding the global temperature increase to 1.5 degrees would prevent the most significant projected climate harms, in line with the <a href="https://unfccc.int/files/meetings/paris_nov_2015/application/pdf/paris_agreement_english_.pdf?gad_source=1&amp;gclid=CjwKCAiAuYuvBhApEiwAzq_YibQqovTdBHRhNfEvDjBCLQ3E6lrXDDzLj6dKEcgz__6mGq-NHDWpuRoCQOYQAvD_BwE">Paris Agreement</a>.</p>
<p>The role of science will likely be a contested issue in the case, including what science is considered the “best available” and how situations of scientific uncertainty should be addressed.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.fedcourt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/110856/Respondents-Defence-to-Second-Further-Amended-Statement-of-Claim.pdf">Government’s Defence</a> raises scientific uncertainty as one basis for dismissing the Applicants’ claim. This includes disputing whether “tipping points” for climate harm in Zendath Kes will occur at 1.5 degrees, and not 2 or 3 degrees warming. Furthermore, the Government argues there is scientific uncertainty as to the causal nexus between its emissions target and the impacts of climate change in Zendath Kes. It remains to be seen whether the Federal Court will appeal to the “precautionary principle”, a pillar of international environmental law, to justify obligations on the Government where scientific uncertainty exists and grave harms are at stake.</p>
<p>Finally, the “fair share” of GHG emission reductions to be undertaken by Australia, as opposed to other countries, is contested. Scientific and other methodologies differ on the calculation. The IPCC reports, generally taken as “best available science” do not address country-specific allocations, only a global average rate of reduction.</p>
<p><strong>Role of Courts</strong></p>
<p>Another anticipated tension in the case will be the role of courts in assessing Government action on climate change. The Applicants seek relief to require the Government to reduce GHG emissions, in line with “best available science”. <em>How </em>the Government meets these higher targets would remain a matter of policy. The Government argues a judicial ruling on Australia’s GHG emissions targets involves “<a href="https://www.fedcourt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/110858/Respondents-Amended-Concise-Statement-in-Response.pdf">questions of policy-making unsuited to judicial determination</a>”.</p>
<p>The previous <a href="https://www.fedcourt.gov.au/services/access-to-files-and-transcripts/online-files/minister-for-the-environment-v-sharma"><em>Minister  for the Environment v Sharma</em></a> case sought to impose a duty of care on the Minister to take reasonable care to avoid future climate harms on young people, when approving a new coal project. The duty was dismissed on appeal. One basis (central to Chief Justice Allsop’s reasoning) was that the duty would require consideration of questions of policy “<em>unsuitable for the judicial branch to resolve</em>.”</p>
<p>Relevantly, <em>Sharma </em>concerned a specific exercise of the Environment Minister’s decision-making power, whilst <em>Pabai </em>seeks the Courts to enforce an overall emissions target, without judicial comment on policy implementation. As such, questions of policy-making in <em>Sharma </em>and <em>Pabai</em> seem distinguishable and not settled by <em>Sharma</em>.</p>
<p>How the Australian Federal Court addresses these questions on the role of science and the role of courts will likely be influential for other countries facing similar cases on state climate inaction, and significant for the lives and continued culture of First Nations people in the Zendath Kes. The judgment is expected in late 2024.</p>
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		<post-id xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">83747</post-id>	</item>
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		<title>La Belgique criminalise l’écocide: une (imparfaite) première européenne</title>
		<link>https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/la-belgique-criminalise-lecocide-une-imparfaite-premiere-europeenne/</link>
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		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Catherine Savard]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 05 Mar 2024 09:00:51 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Blog]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Belgium]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[European Union]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[International Criminal Court]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[United States]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/?p=83719</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[Le 22 février 2024, la Belgique a marqué l’histoire en adoptant un nouveau code pénal criminalisant l’écocide dans son droit interne. Il s’agit de la première fois qu’une telle interdiction nationale est adoptée en Europe. L’interdiction belge emporte des sanctions sévères, les individus risquant jusqu&#8217;à 20 ans de prison et les personnes morales, jusqu&#8217;à 1,6 [&#8230;]]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Le 22 février 2024, la Belgique a marqué l’histoire en adoptant un nouveau <a href="https://www.dekamer.be/FLWB/PDF/55/3518/55K3518001.pdf">code pénal</a> criminalisant l’écocide dans son droit interne. Il s’agit de la <a href="https://www.stopecocide.earth/2024/belgium-becomes-first-european-country-to-recognise-ecocide-as-international-level-crime">première fois</a> qu’une telle interdiction nationale est adoptée en Europe. L’interdiction belge emporte des sanctions sévères, les individus risquant jusqu&#8217;à 20 ans de prison et les personnes morales, jusqu&#8217;à 1,6 million d’euros d’amende. En adoptant cette interdiction, la Belgique est également devenue le premier pays à aligner sa législation nationale sur la <a href="https://www.brusselstimes.com/937229/belgium-becomes-first-in-eu-to-recognise-ecocide-as-international-crime-tbtb">directive révisée de l&#8217;UE sur les crimes environnementaux de 2023</a>, laquelle oblige les États membres à établir une infraction « <a href="https://sustainablefutures.linklaters.com/post/102itnt/environmental-crime-directive-european-parliament-and-council-agree-to-introduce#:~:text=Under%20the%20revised%20ECD%2C%20a,value%2C%20or%20to%20a%20natural">comparable à l&#8217;écocide </a>».</strong></p>
<p style="font-weight: 400;">Tout en reconnaissant le caractère novateur de cette interdiction, un examen plus approfondi de la définition adoptée par la Belgique suggère que cette disposition pourrait ne pas être aussi efficace qu’anticipé. Cet article met en lumière deux lacunes de la définition récemment adoptée, afin de contribuer aux discussions en cours visant l’adoption d’interdictions additionnelles de l&#8217;écocide au niveau national.</p>
<p style="font-weight: 400;">Le terme « écocide », inventé en 1970 dans la foulée de la guerre menée par les États-Unis au Vietnam, a depuis lors été au cœur de débats définitionnels complexes entravant significativement la mise en œuvre d’interdictions juridiques à cet effet. En 2021, les efforts visant à définir ce concept ont conduit un groupe d’experts indépendants à proposer une définition destinée à être mise en œuvre dans le Statut de Rome de la Cour pénale internationale (CPI). Le groupe d’experts a <a href="https://www.stopecocide.earth/legal-definition#:~:text=For%20the%20purpose%20of%20this,being%20caused%20by%20those%20acts.">défini</a> l’écocide comme des « actes illégaux ou arbitraires commis en sachant la réelle probabilité que ces actes causent à l&#8217;environnement des dommages graves qui soient étendus ou durables ». Cette définition, bien que non contraignante, a suscité une attention internationale considérable et a alimenté significativement les discussions subséquentes entourant l’adoption d’une interdiction de l’écocide.</p>
<p style="font-weight: 400;">Alors que la Belgique s’est <a href="https://www.stopecocide.earth/belgium-and-the-recognition-of-ecocide-as-a-crime">appuyée</a> sur la définition du groupe d’experts comme point de départ pour élaborer sa propre définition de l&#8217;écocide, elle a finalement adopté une définition beaucoup plus étroite. L&#8217;article 94 du nouveau code pénal de la Belgique <a href="https://www.dekamer.be/FLWB/PDF/55/3518/55K3518001.pdf">définit</a> désormais l&#8217;écocide comme le fait de « commettre délibérément, par action ou par omission, un acte illégal causant des dommages graves, étendus et à long terme à l’environnement en sachant que cet acte cause de tels dommages, pour autant que cet acte constitue une infraction à la législation fédérale ou à un instrument international qui lie l’autorité fédérale ou si l’acte ne peut pas être localisé en Belgique. »</p>
<p style="font-weight: 400;">La décision de la Belgique d’adopter une définition plus étroite par rapport à celle du groupe d’experts est inquiétante. Comme mentionné, la définition du groupe d’experts visait l’incorporation de l’écocide comme cinquième crime relevant de la compétence de la CPI, soit une juridiction de dernier ressort se concentrant sur les crimes les plus graves préoccupant la communauté internationale. Bien que la définition du groupe d’experts demeure imparfaite, il demeure que celle-ci a été soigneusement conçue pour mettre en balance des impératifs d’efficacité et de légalité dans le cadre restrictif du Statut de Rome. Opter pour une interprétation encore plus étroite pour une interdiction au niveau national peut non seulement sembler inutile, mais aussi être loin d’être optimal afin de garantir une protection effective des écosystèmes.</p>
<p style="font-weight: 400;">Plus spécifiquement, l&#8217;approche étroite de la Belgique appert problématique à deux égards. Premièrement, la définition de la Belgique mentionne un <a href="https://opiniojuris.org/2022/11/08/belgium-set-to-criminalise-ecocide-kinda-sorta/">acte « illégal »</a> en vertu du droit fédéral belge ou du droit international applicable. (Par contraste, la définition du groupe d’experts inclut à la fois les actes « illégaux ou arbitraires » ; <a href="https://ecocidelaw.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Proposed-Definition-of-Ecocide-Promise-Group-April-9-2021-final.pdf">d’autres propositions</a>incluaient une liste d&#8217;actes interdits.) Compte tenu du peu de normes contraignantes en droit international de l’environnement, l’efficacité de l’interdiction belge repose donc largement sur l&#8217;existence d&#8217;un solide cadre environnemental en droit fédéral belge. En d&#8217;autres termes, les comportements visés par la définition de l&#8217;écocide n&#8217;élargissent pas de manière significative le champ d&#8217;application des comportements déjà illégaux en vertu de la législation nationale belge. L’on peut demeurer dubitatif quant à la valeur dissuasive ajoutée d&#8217;une interdiction aussi étroite de l&#8217;écocide dans ce contexte, outre une éventuelle augmentation de la peine imposée pour sanctionner des comportements par ailleurs déjà interdits.</p>
<p style="font-weight: 400;">Deuxièmement, l’élément mental codifié dans la définition belge est remarquablement rigoureux. Selon cette définition, l’acte allégué doit être commis « délibérément » et « en sachant que cet acte cause » des dommages environnementaux. Cette approche inclut le <em>dolus indirectus</em>, un concept emprunté par les juridictions internationales au droit continental (voir par ex. le <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/CourtRecords/CR2008_05172.PDF">paragraphe 530</a>). Cependant, pareil standard s’avère <a href="https://link-springer-com.ezproxy-prd.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-82412-9_17">impraticable</a> dans le contexte de l&#8217;écocide, compte tenu de la nature souvent imprévisible des dommages environnementaux. Telle que formulée, la définition belge permet aux accusés négligents d’éluder leur responsabilité s’ils démontrent le caractère incertain du dommage résultant de leur comportement incriminé. Le groupe d’experts a favorisé une approche plus large, similaire au <em>dolus eventualis</em> ou à la négligence, ne requérant de l’accusé qu’il « sach[e] la réelle probabilité » que ces actes causent des dommages environnementaux. Bien que l’inclusion d’un tel élément moral reste <a href="https://voelkerrechtsblog.org/mens-rea-and-the-proposed-legal-definition-of-ecocide/">débattue dans le contexte du Statut de Rome</a>, les juridictions nationales demeurent en principe libres d’adopter un standard aussi bas dans leurs définitions d&#8217;écocide.</p>
<p style="font-weight: 400;">Dans l&#8217;ensemble, l&#8217;exemple belge constitue un exemple remarquable – bien qu’imparfait – de leadership étatique dans le domaine émergent du droit de l&#8217;écocide. Cet article a mis en lumière deux domaines où l&#8217;approche étroite de la Belgique entrave significativement l’efficacité de cette interdiction. Alors que les efforts en faveur de l&#8217;interdiction de l&#8217;écocide <a href="https://www.scottishlegal.com/articles/belgium-becomes-european-trailblazer-on-ecocide">gagnent du terrain à l&#8217;échelle mondiale</a>, un plaidoyer en faveur d’interdictions nationales, régionales et internationales solides est plus que jamais nécessaire afin de lutter contre l’impunité persistante des crimes environnementaux.</p>
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		<title>Belgium Recognises the Crime of Ecocide: A (Lukewarm) European First</title>
		<link>https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/belgium-recognises-the-crime-of-ecocide-a-lukewarm-european-first/</link>
					<comments>https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/belgium-recognises-the-crime-of-ecocide-a-lukewarm-european-first/#respond</comments>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Catherine Savard]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 05 Mar 2024 09:00:08 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Blog]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Belgium]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[European Union]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[International Criminal Court]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[United States]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/?p=83706</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[On 22 February 2024, Belgium made history by adopting a new penal code that criminalises ‘ecocide’ at the national level. This marks the first time that such a domestic prohibition is to be implemented in Europe. The Belgian prohibition on ecocide includes severe penalties, with individuals facing up to 20 years in prison and legal [&#8230;]]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>On 22 February 2024, Belgium made history by adopting a new <a href="https://www.dekamer.be/FLWB/PDF/55/3518/55K3518001.pdf">penal code</a> that criminalises ‘ecocide’ at the national level. This marks the <a href="https://www.stopecocide.earth/2024/belgium-becomes-first-european-country-to-recognise-ecocide-as-international-level-crime">first time</a> that such a domestic prohibition is to be implemented in Europe. The Belgian prohibition on ecocide includes severe penalties, with individuals facing up to 20 years in prison and legal persons facing fines of up to 1.6 million euros. By enacting this prohibition, Belgium also became the first country to align its domestic legislation with the <a href="https://www.brusselstimes.com/937229/belgium-becomes-first-in-eu-to-recognise-ecocide-as-international-crime-tbtb">2023 revised EU Environmental Crimes Directive</a>, which mandates member states to establish an offence ‘<a href="https://sustainablefutures.linklaters.com/post/102itnt/environmental-crime-directive-european-parliament-and-council-agree-to-introduce#:~:text=Under%20the%20revised%20ECD%2C%20a,value%2C%20or%20to%20a%20natural">comparable to ecocide</a>’.</strong></p>
<p style="font-weight: 400;">While recognising the trailblazing nature of this prohibition, a closer look at the definition enacted by Belgium suggests that this provision may not be as effective as anticipated. This post highlights two shortcomings of the newly adopted definition, aiming to contribute to ongoing discussions toward the adoption of further domestic prohibitions on ecocide.</p>
<p style="font-weight: 400;">The concept of ‘ecocide’, coined in 1970 in the context of the US chemical warfare in Vietnam, has since then been plagued by complex definitional conundrums significantly impeding its enaction as a legal prohibition. In 2021, efforts to define this concept culminated in an independent expert panel (IEP) proposing a definition designed to be implemented in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC). This panel <a href="https://www.stopecocide.earth/legal-definition#:~:text=For%20the%20purpose%20of%20this,being%20caused%20by%20those%20acts.">defined</a> ecocide as ‘unlawful or wanton acts committed with knowledge that there is a substantial likelihood of severe and either widespread or long-term damage to the environment being caused by those acts’. This definition, though not binding, garnered significant international attention and informed subsequent discussions on the prohibition of ecocide.</p>
<p style="font-weight: 400;">While Belgium <a href="https://www.stopecocide.earth/belgium-and-the-recognition-of-ecocide-as-a-crime">relied</a> on the IEP definition as a starting point in crafting its definition of ecocide, it ultimately adopted a much narrower definition. Article 94 of Belgium’s <a href="https://www.dekamer.be/FLWB/PDF/55/3518/55K3518001.pdf">new penal code</a> now defines ecocide as ‘deliberately committing, by act or omission, an unlawful action causing serious, widespread and long-term damage to the environment in the knowledge that this act causes such damage, provided that this act constitutes an infringement of federal legislation or an international instrument that is binding on the federal authority or if the act cannot be located in Belgium’.</p>
<p style="font-weight: 400;">Belgium’s choice to adopt a narrower definition compared to that of the IEP is worrying. As mentioned, the IEP definition was primarily intended to establish ecocide as a fifth crime within the scope of the ICC’s jurisdiction, which constitutes a court of last resort focusing on the most serious crimes of concern to the international community. While the IEP’s definition is by no means perfect, it was carefully designed to balance effectiveness and legality within the restrictive Rome Statute framework. Opting for an even narrower interpretation for a domestic prohibition may not only appear unnecessary but also suboptimal for ensuring robust environmental protection.</p>
<p style="font-weight: 400;">Specifically, Belgium’s narrow approach appears problematic in two key aspects. Firstly, <a href="https://opiniojuris.org/2022/11/08/belgium-set-to-criminalise-ecocide-kinda-sorta/">Belgium’s definition only includes ‘unlawful’ acts</a> under either Belgian federal law or applicable international law. (By contrast, the IEP definition captures both ‘unlawful or wanton acts’; <a href="https://ecocidelaw.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Proposed-Definition-of-Ecocide-Promise-Group-April-9-2021-final.pdf">other proposals</a> included a list of prohibited acts.) Given the scarcity of binding international environmental law norms, the effectiveness of the Belgian prohibition is thus largely premised on the existence of a strong domestic environmental framework in Belgian federal law. In other words, the conduct captured by the definition of ecocide does not significantly expand the scope of conduct already unlawful under Belgian domestic law. One could question the added deterrent value of such a narrow prohibition on ecocide in this context, other than eventually increasing the punishment for already prohibited conduct.</p>
<p style="font-weight: 400;">Secondly, the mental element codified in the Belgian definition is strikingly stringent. According to this definition, the alleged act must be carried out ‘deliberately’ and ‘in the knowledge that this act causes’ environmental harm. This approach captures <em>dolus indirectus</em>, a concept borrowed by international courts from continental legal doctrine (see e.g. <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/CourtRecords/CR2008_05172.PDF">para. 530</a>). However, this standard proves to be <a href="https://link-springer-com.ezproxy-prd.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-82412-9_17">impracticable</a> in the context of ecocide due to the often unpredictable nature of environmental harm. As it stands, the Belgian definition allows for reckless defendants to avoid accountability if they demonstrate the uncertain nature of the harm resulting from the impugned conduct. The IEP favoured a wider approach akin to <em>dolus eventualis</em> or recklessness, requiring only ‘knowledge that there is a substantial likelihood’ of environmental harm. While the inclusion of this mental element remains <a href="https://voelkerrechtsblog.org/mens-rea-and-the-proposed-legal-definition-of-ecocide/">debated in the context of the Rome Statute</a>, such a low standard remains in principle available for domestic jurisdictions to include in their ecocide definitions.</p>
<p style="font-weight: 400;">Overall, the Belgian example serves as a notable – albeit imperfect – example of State leadership in the burgeoning field of ecocide law. This post highlighted two areas where Belgium&#8217;s narrow approach significantly hampers the effectiveness of this prohibition. As efforts towards ecocide prohibition are <a href="https://www.scottishlegal.com/articles/belgium-becomes-european-trailblazer-on-ecocide">gaining traction globally</a>, strong advocacy for strong domestic, regional and international prohibitions is more needed than ever to close the impunity gap for environmental crimes.</p>
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